Benedict de Spinoza
Benedict de Spinoza, (1632-77). Dutch philosopher, of Portuguese Jewish descent. He studied Hebrew and the Jewish scriptures but the unorthodox nature of his thought led to his excommunication by the synagogue authorities in 1656. Subsequently he worked as a tutor and lens-grinder while writing such major works as his Ethics (written 1662-75; published 1677). In this book, his masterpiece, Spinoza rejected the idea of a personal God in favour of a pantheist philosophy. In 1673 he refused the offer of the post of professor of philosophy at Heidelberg University in order to preserve his independence. He died of consumption.
